[AAACE-NLA] A Theory-Based Lit Review

[tsticht@znet.com]

June 28, 2006

A Theory-Based Literature Review of Auding and Reading Processes

Tom Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education

Note: The term "auding" as used here was coined by a blind doctoral student
at Stanford University in 1954 as a parallel term to "reading." Auding is
sometimes referred to as "listening comprehension" meaning comprehension of
the spoken language.

Many adults lack sufficient literacy skills for meeting their daily needs. 
For these reasons information regarding the nature of literacy skills and
their development is needed. Such information should prove useful in the
development of literacy training programs, and in the development of more
effective and/or efficient methods for imparting knowledge by the spoken or
printed word. Because several recent reviews of the scientific literature on
reading and language skills failed to uncover many salient facts for use in
guiding literacy research or development of literacy training programs, it
was felt that the present review should be guided by a theory or model
which could provide a rationale for sorting, sifting, and interpreting
various research studies. Accordingly, a simple model of the development of
oracy and literacy skills was developed, and literature was reviewed and
synthesized within the framework of the model.

The model proposes four major sets of processes in a developmental sequence
to describe the development of auding and reading: (a) the basic adaptive
processes (BAPs-seeing,hearing,cognitive,motor movement),(b) the languaging
precursors (listening and looking),(c) the oracy languaging processes
(auding and speaking),and (d) the literacy languaging processes (reading
and writing).The BAPs of seeing and hearing are considered as mechanical or
automatic operations that occur as simple physiological responses to
structural environmental information; no active, mediating cognitive
processing is involved in extracting and registering this information.
Listening and looking, conversely, are information-processing activities
that involve an active, attentional or intentional selection, manipulation,
and utilization of information. Auding and reading are specialized listening
and looking activities; they entail the extraction and conceptualization of
information from a system of conventionalized signs. Within the model's
structure, languaging and conceptualizing are major competencies which
undergird the auding and reading processes.

Consistent with the model's treatment of language as a central, or common,
component in the cognitive content of an individual despite the mode of
information reception (ie.,auding or reading),four hypotheses were derived.
These are:

1.Performance on measures of ability to comprehend language by auding will
surpass performance on measures of ability to comprehend language by
reading during the early years of schooling, until reading skill is
learned, following which time the ability to comprehend by auding and
reading will become equal.

2.Performance on measures of ability to comprehend language by auding will
be predictive of performance on measures of ability to comprehend language
by reading, after reading decoding skill is acquired.

3.Performance on measures of rate of reading and rate of auding will show
comparable maximal rates of languaging and conceptualizing, after reading
decoding has been developed.

4.Training in comprehending by auding will transfer to comprehending by
reading, once the reading skill has been acquired. Reading comprehension
can then transfer to improve auding.

A review of dozens of masters and doctoral theses, journal articles, and
other relevant experimental data provided support for each of the four
hypotheses. Confirmation of the hypotheses furnishes evidence for the
developmental model of reading-that reading is based upon, and utilizes,
the same conceptualizing and languaging competencies that are used in
auding (plus the additional competencies necessary to convert the visual
display into an internal auditory display). These findings give rise to the
following implications:

1.Reading ability is built upon a foundation of language abilities both
developed and expressed largely by means of the oracy skills of auding and
speaking. For this reason, a much greater emphasis than has previously been
shown should be given to the development of:

Methods for characterizing and assessing oral language as a developing
ability, and in relation to reading skills development. For instance, an
auding-reading test battery would be useful in indexing discrepancies
between these skills, and in revealing the extent to which reading problems
reflect difficulties in decoding, languaging, or conceptualizing.

Methods for improving oral language skills as foundation skills for reading.
An oracy-to-literacy sequence of training would seem desirable in teaching
new vocabulary and concepts to unskilled readers; it would reduce the
learning burden by not requiring the simultaneous learning of both
vocabulary and decoding.

2.Both oracy and literacy language skills rely upon conceptualizations
formed from knowledge and stored in memory. It is necessary, therefore,
that an auder or reader have an adequate, relevant knowledge base for
comprehension of printed or spoken messages to occur. This suggests that:

There is a need for research to determine how "old" knowledge is used to
acquire "new" knowledge by oracy and literacy skills, and to develop
methods by which a person can examine what he already knows and manipulate
this knowledge to either create new knowledge or obtain new knowledge.

There is a need for research and development to ensure that students acquire
the requisite knowledge base needed to perform significant adult literacy
tasks. For instance, knowledge specific to a particular occupational
cluster might be taught for those desiring vocational education. Knowledge
specific to a particular body of health care might be taught.

3.Because high skill levels in reading presuppose high skill levels in
decoding and oral language, and a broadly developed conceptual base, adults
should be encouraged to stay in programs for longer duration than they
currently do. The development of oral language skills and broad bases of
knowledge requires considerable practice, drill, study, and time for
assimilation and accommodation processes to build adequate cognitive
structures.

4.Because many government and industry educational programs are concerned
with literacy training which will improve a person's capacity to accomplish
a job and advance in a career (e.g., welfare-to-work),  job-related literacy
training should be emphasized in such remedial literacy programs.This will
be the fastest way to build the most immediately relevant knowledge base.
However, because learning the meanings of job-related terminology and
concepts, and the development of automaticity in decoding job printed
materials will require considerable time, programs of literacy training of
sufficient duration, and with suitable job-related content, should be
conducted to promote fully developed job literacy skills.

Adapted from: Sticht, T. et al (1974) Auding and Reading: A Developmental
Model. Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization. Available
online at www.nald.ca under the NALD library pages.

Thomas G. Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education
2062 Valley View Blvd.
El Cajon, CA 92019-2059
Tel/fax: (619) 444-9133
Email: tsticht at aznet.net